Flight schools and flying clubs
2,408 training organisations: flight schools and academies (1,271), universities and colleges with a flight programme (131) and flying clubs (1,006), each with the aircraft it registers, its town and the main public airport there. Read this as a start, not an official list: the FAA publishes no downloadable list of flight schools (its online finder covers only certificated Part 141 schools), so this one is drawn from the FAA aircraft register: companies whose names say "flight school", "academy", "training" or "flying club", and companies whose names don't but which own fleets of training aircraft and say on their own websites that they give flying lessons. A school that rents all its aircraft from someone else is not here yet.
| Organisation | Kind | Town | Airport | Aircraft registered | Mostly |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Christiansen Aviation LLC website Christiansen Aviation is a fixed-base operator at Jones-Riverside Airport in Tulsa, Oklahoma, offering aircraft leasing, flight training, aircraft rental, maintenance, sales of new and used Cessnas, pilot supplies, and hangar space. | Flight school | Tulsa, Oklahoma | Tulsa Riverside Airport RVS | 321 | Cessna 172S |
| Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University INC | Flight school | Daytona Beach, Florida | Daytona Beach International DAB | 229 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Und Aerospace Foundation website The UND Aerospace Foundation is a non-profit corporation that offers professional pilot training programs, including an accelerated 12-month commercial airline pilot program and a 2-year collegiate professional airline pilot program leading | Flight school | Grand Forks, North Dakota | Grand Forks International GFK | 101 | Piper Aircraft Inc PA-28-181 |
| Hillsboro Aero Academy LLC website | Flight school | Hillsboro, Oregon | Stark'S Twin Oaks Airpark 7S3 | 100 | Cessna 152 |
| University of North Dakota website The University of North Dakota is the state's oldest and largest university, founded in 1883, located in Grand Forks with an enrollment of 15,908 students. | University or college with a flight programme | Grand Forks, North Dakota | Grand Forks International GFK | 89 | Piper Aircraft Inc PA-28-181 |
| Middle Tennessee State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Murfreesboro, Tennessee | Murfreesboro Municipal MBT | 74 | Diamond Aircraft DA 40 |
| Westwind School of Aeronautics Phoenix LLC | Flight school | Goodyear, Arizona | Phoenix Goodyear Airport GYR | 74 | Cirrus Design Corp SR20 |
| Skywarrior Flight Training LLC website | Flight school | Pensacola, Florida | Pensacola International PNS | 70 | Cessna 172P |
| Sunrise Aviation INC website Sunrise Flight Academy is a flight school operating at three locations in Florida (Ormond Beach, Lakeland, and Jacksonville) that has trained professional pilots from over 50 countries since 1983. | Flight school | Ormond Beach, Florida | Ormond Beach Municipal OMN | 66 | Cessna 152 |
| Southern Utah University website Southern Utah University is a teaching and learning community in Cedar City, Utah, offering over 150 undergraduate, graduate, and certificate programs. | University or college with a flight programme | Cedar City, Utah | Cedar City Regional CDC | 65 | Robinson Helicopter R44 II |
| Skyborne Airline Academy INC website Skyborne Airline Academy is a flight training organization that operates pilot training programs in the United States, United Kingdom, and India. | Flight school | Vero Beach, Florida | Vero Beach Regional VRB | 63 | Piper PA-28-161 |
| Utah State University website Utah State University is a land-grant public research university founded in 1888, serving over 29,000 students across 30 locations in Utah and online. | University or college with a flight programme | Logan, Utah | Logan-Cache Airport LGU | 58 | Diamond Aircraft DA 40 |
| Cae Aviation Academy Phoenix LLC website | Flight school | Mesa, Arizona | Falcon Field FFZ | 56 | Piper Aircraft Inc PA-28-181 |
| Board of Trustees of Western Michigan University website Western Michigan University is a public research university in Kalamazoo, Michigan, with 17,331 students and 265+ academic programs. | University or college with a flight programme | Kalamazoo, Michigan | Kalamazoo/Battle Creek International AZO | 55 | Cirrus Design Corp SR20 |
| Florida Institute of Technology | University or college with a flight programme | Melbourne, Florida | Melbourne Orlando International MLB | 50 | Piper PA-28-161 |
| Phoenix East Aviation LLC website Phoenix East Aviation is a flight school with three locations in Florida (Daytona Beach, Fort Lauderdale, and Flagler Beach) that provides pilot training programs ranging from private pilot to commercial and airline pilot certification. | Flight school | Daytona Beach, Florida | Daytona Beach International DAB | 48 | Cessna 172S |
| Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma website | University or college with a flight programme | Norman, Oklahoma | University Of Oklahoma Westheimer Airport OUN | 47 | Piper PA-28-161 |
| Jet Air INC website Jet Air, Inc. | Flight school | Iowa City, Iowa | Iowa City Municipal IOW | 45 | Cessna 172S |
| University of Alaska Fairbanks website | University or college with a flight programme | Fairbanks, Alaska | Fairbanks International FAI | 45 | Drs Technologies SENTRY HP |
| Career Pilot Training LLC website flyGATEWAY is a flight school offering FAA-approved career pilot programs and Cirrus Platinum Training Center instruction across six locations in Delaware and Pennsylvania. | Flight school | Wilmington, Delaware | New Castle Airport ILG | 42 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Coast Flight Training and Management INC website | Flight school | San Diego, California | Montgomery-Gibbs Executive MYF | 41 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Skyline Aviation INC website Skyline Aviation Training Academy is a flight training school with locations in San Angelo and Abilene, Texas. | Flight school | San Angelo, Texas | San Angelo Rgnl/Mathis Field SJT | 41 | Diamond Aircraft DA20-C1 |
| Kansas State University website Kansas State University operates a campus in Salina, Kansas offering 25+ degree programs with an emphasis on applied learning and career readiness. | University or college with a flight programme | Salina, Kansas | Salina Regional SLN | 40 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Lewis University website | University or college with a flight programme | Romeoville, Illinois | no public airport in town | 38 | Cessna 172S |
| Kent State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Stow, Ohio | no public airport in town | 36 | Cessna 152 |
| Board of Trustees of Southern Illinois University website Southern Illinois University is a public university system with campuses at Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois. | University or college with a flight programme | Murphysboro, Illinois | no public airport in town | 34 | Cessna 172R |
| Melbourne Flight Training LLC | Flight school | Melbourne, Florida | Melbourne Orlando International MLB | 34 | Cessna 172N |
| National Test Pilot School website The National Test Pilot School is an accredited institution of higher education located in Mojave, California that offers Master of Science degrees in Flight Test Engineering and Flight Test and Evaluation, along with professional 50-week c | Flight school | Mojave, California | Mojave Air & Space Port/Rutan Field MHV | 34 | Aermacchi IMPALA MB-326M |
| Rainier Flight Service LLC website Rainier Flight Service is a flight school offering pilot training at multiple locations in the Seattle area (Seattle, Everett, Auburn, and Gig Harbor, Washington). | Flight school | Renton, Washington | Renton Municipal RNT | 34 | Cessna Aircraft Co 162 |
| Big Bend Community College website | University or college with a flight programme | Moses Lake, Washington | Grant County International MWH | 33 | Beech B19 |
| North Star Aviation INC website North Star Aviation is a flight school based at Mankato Regional Airport in Minnesota that provides pilot training from private pilot through certified flight instructor level. | Flight school | Mankato, Minnesota | Mankato Regional MKT | 32 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Silverhawk Aviation Academy LLC website Silverhawk Aviation Academy is an FAA-approved Part 141 flight school in Caldwell, Idaho, offering helicopter and airplane flight training since 1998. | Flight school | Caldwell, Idaho | Caldwell Executive EUL | 32 | Cessna 172S |
| Georgia Institute of Technology | University or college with a flight programme | Atlanta, Georgia | Hartsfield/Jackson Atlanta International ATL | 31 | Unmanned Aerial Research OSPREY |
| Macair Aviation LLC website MacAir Aviation is a full-service fixed-base operator, flight training school, and aero club located at Greene County-Lewis A. | Flight school | Xenia, Ohio | no public airport in town | 31 | Piper PA-28-161 |
| Bowling Green Flight Center LLC website | Flight school | Bowling Green, Ohio | Wood County Regional 1G0 | 30 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Liberty University website Liberty University is a Christian university in Lynchburg, Virginia, offering over 700 degree programs at associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral levels. | University or college with a flight programme | Lynchburg, Virginia | Lynchburg Rgnl/Preston Glenn Field LYH | 30 | Cessna 172S |
| Delta State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Cleveland, Mississippi | Cleveland Municipal RNV | 29 | Cessna 152 |
| Lufthansa Aviation Training USA INC website Lufthansa Aviation Training USA provides flight training for pilots, cabin crew, and airlines. | Flight school | Goodyear, Arizona | Phoenix Goodyear Airport GYR | 29 | Cirrus Design Corp SR20 |
| Trustees of Purdue University website Purdue University is a public research university in West Lafayette, Indiana, with over 50,000 students on its main campus and additional locations in Indianapolis and online. | University or college with a flight programme | West Lafayette, Indiana | no public airport in town | 28 | Piper Aircraft Inc PA-28-181 |
| Atp Aircraft 1 LLC website ATP Flight School is a flight training organization that offers airline pilot training programs nationwide through 88 flight training centers across the United States. | Flight school | St George, Utah | St. George Regional SGU | 27 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Auburn University website Auburn University is one of the South's largest universities located in Auburn, Alabama. | University or college with a flight programme | Auburn, Alabama | Auburn University Regional AUO | 26 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Blue Line Aviation LLC website Blue Line Aviation LLC is a flight school operating campuses in Smithfield, North Carolina and Winter Haven, Florida. | Flight school | Smithfield, North Carolina | Johnston Regional JNX | 26 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Kingsky Flight Academy LLC website Kingsky Flight Academy is a flight school in Lakeland, Florida offering professional pilot training programs from Private Pilot through Airline Pilot certification, including ATP-CTP courses and Type Ratings for Boeing 737NG and Airbus A320 | Flight school | Lakeland, Florida | Lakeland Linder International LAL | 26 | Cessna 172N |
| Letourneau University website LeTourneau University is a Christian polytechnic university in Longview, Texas that operates the College of Aviation & Aeronautical Science, described as the only comprehensive university-level aviation program in Texas. | University or college with a flight programme | Longview, Texas | East Texas Regional GGG | 26 | American Champion Aircraft 7ECA |
| Oklahoma State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Stillwater, Oklahoma | Stillwater Regional SWO | 26 | Cessna 172R |
| University of Central Missouri website | University or college with a flight programme | Warrensburg, Missouri | Skyhaven Airport RCM | 26 | Cessna 172R |
| Oracle Aviation LLC website Oracle Aviation is a full-service FBO and FAA-certified flight school operating at Millard Airport in Omaha, Nebraska and Sioux Gateway Airport in Sioux City, Iowa. | Flight school | Omaha, Nebraska | Eppley Airfield OMA | 25 | Cessna 172N |
| Angel Aviation INC website Angel Aviation Flight School operates flight training and aircraft rental services at Glendale Municipal Airport in Arizona and Merrill Field in Anchorage, Alaska. | Flight school | Peoria, Arizona | no public airport in town | 24 | Cessna 172P |
| California In Nice INC website Nice Air Aviation is an FAA-certified flight school operating under Part 141 and Part 61 at Reid-Hillview Airport in San Jose, California. | Flight school | San Jose, California | Reid-Hillview Of Santa Clara County RHV | 24 | Cessna 152 |
| Dragonfly Aviation LLC website Dragonfly Aviation is a flight school at Barrow County Airport in Winder, Georgia that offers pilot training from private pilot through instructor ratings, aircraft rental, and introductory flights. | Flight school | Winder, Georgia | Barrow County WDR | 24 | Diamond Aircraft DA20-C1 |
| Iasco Flight Training INC website | Flight school | Redding, California | Redding Regional RDD | 24 | Cessna 172R |
| Ohio University website Ohio University is a public research university established in 1804, with its main residential campus in Athens, Ohio, and five regional commuter campuses across the state, plus extension campuses and online programs. | University or college with a flight programme | Albany, Ohio | no public airport in town | 24 | Cirrus Design Corp SR20 |
| Rochester Institute of Technology website Rochester Institute of Technology is a university in Rochester, New York that offers bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degree programs across multiple disciplines including engineering, computing, arts, design, business, and health profess | University or college with a flight programme | Rochester, New York | Frederick Douglass/Greater Rochester International ROC | 24 | DJI INSPIRE 2 |
| Clover Park Technical College | University or college with a flight programme | Lakewood, Washington | American Lake Seaplane Base W37 | 23 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Eastern Kentucky University website | University or college with a flight programme | Richmond, Kentucky | Central Kentucky Regional RGA | 23 | Cessna 172R |
| Green River College website Green River College is a community college in Auburn, Washington with nearly 15,000 students. | University or college with a flight programme | Auburn, Washington | Auburn Municipal S50 | 23 | Skydio SDR35V1 |
| Leading Edge Flight Academy LLC website Leading Edge Aviation is a helicopter operator based in Bend, Oregon, offering charter services, helicopter tours, flight training, and maintenance. | Flight school | Bend, Oregon | Bend Municipal BDN | 23 | Cessna 172M |
| Nationwide Aviation LLC website Nationwide Aviation is a flight school with campuses in Dallas–Fort Worth and Nashville that provides pilot training from discovery flights through professional pilot certification. | Flight school | Hudson Oaks, Texas | no public airport in town | 23 | Piper PA-28-161 |
| Ohio State University | University or college with a flight programme | Columbus, Ohio | John Glenn Columbus International CMH | 23 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Texas State Technical College website Texas State Technical College is a technical college with 11 campuses across Texas, including locations in Waco, Abilene, and Harlingen. | University or college with a flight programme | Waco, Texas | Waco Regional ACT | 23 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Utah Valley University website | University or college with a flight programme | Orem, Utah | no public airport in town | 23 | Diamond Aircraft DA 40 |
| Elizabeth City State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Elizabeth City, North Carolina | Elizabeth City CG Air Station/Rgnl ECG | 22 | Cessna 172S |
| Indiana State University website Indiana State University is a public university in Terre Haute, Indiana, offering undergraduate, graduate, and online degree programs. | University or college with a flight programme | Terre Haute, Indiana | Terre Haute Regional HUF | 22 | Diamond Aircraft DA20-C1 |
| Midwest Corporate Air INC website Midwest Corporate Air is a flight school in Bellefontaine, Ohio, offering accelerated and traditional pilot training from private pilot through ATP, as well as CFI and MEI ratings. | Flight school | Bellefontaine, Ohio | Bellefontaine Regional EDJ | 22 | Diamond Aircraft DA 40 |
| Rick Aviation INC website Rick Aviation is a full-service Fixed-Base Operator (FBO) and FAA Part 141-approved flight school at Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport in Virginia. | Flight school | Newport News, Virginia | Newport News/Williamsburg International PHF | 22 | Cessna 172P |
| Swaz Aviation LLC website SWAZ Aviation operates an aircraft rental fleet and provides pilot training at Falcon Field Airport (KFFZ) in Mesa, Arizona. | Flight school | Mesa, Arizona | Falcon Field FFZ | 22 | Piper PA-28-161 |
| Flight Training Aircraft LLC | Flight school | Wilmington, Delaware | New Castle Airport ILG | 21 | Cessna 172S |
| Long Island Aviators LLC website Long Island Aviators is a flight school at Republic Airport in Farmingdale, New York that provides flight instruction for all ratings from private pilot through ATP, as well as aircraft rental for certificated pilots. | Flight school | Seaford, New York | no public airport in town | 21 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Northwestern Michigan College website Northwestern Michigan College is a community college in Traverse City, Michigan that operates a university flight programme. | University or college with a flight programme | Traverse City, Michigan | Cherry Capital Airport TVC | 21 | Cessna 172S |
| St Pete Aviation Services LLC website St Pete Air is a flight school and aircraft rental company based at Albert Whitted Airport in Saint Petersburg, Florida. | Flight school | Saint Petersburg, Florida | no public airport in town | 21 | Cessna 172P |
| Airgo INC website Airgo is a flight academy based in Centralia, Illinois, that has provided pilot training since 1968. | Flight school | Centralia, Illinois | Centralia Municipal ENL | 20 | Cessna 150M |
| Northwoods Air LLC website Northwoods Air is a flight school located in Old Town, Maine that offers pilot training from discovery flights through commercial certification, including private pilot, instrument rating, commercial, tailwheel, seaplane, and accelerated co | Flight school | Orono, Maine | no public airport in town | 20 | Cessna 172P |
| Sanders Flight Training Center INC website Sanders Flight Training Center is a FAA Part 141-certified flight school offering accelerated pilot training programs from private pilot through certified flight instructor ratings. | Flight school | Jasper, Alabama | Walker County/Bevill Field JFX | 20 | Cessna 172N |
| Training Planes LLC website Plane Training LLC is a flight school based in Rapid City, South Dakota, with a satellite location in Phoenix, Arizona. | Flight school | Tampa, Florida | Tampa International TPA | 20 | Cessna 152 |
| California Baptist University website California Baptist University is a Christ-centered private university in Riverside, California, with over 12,600 students across on-campus and online programs. | University or college with a flight programme | Riverside, California | Riverside Airport RAL | 19 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Iowa Lakes Community College website Iowa Lakes Community College is a community college with campuses in Estherville and Spencer, Iowa, that offers over 70 degree, certificate, and pre-professional programs including an Aviation & Airport Management AAS degree. | University or college with a flight programme | Estherville, Iowa | Estherville Municipal EST | 19 | Cessna 172M |
| Pacific Flight Academy LLC website Pacific Flight Academy is a flight school in Honolulu, Hawaii that offers comprehensive aviation training programs from Private Pilot through Airline Transport Pilot ratings. | Flight school | Honolulu, Hawaii | Daniel K Inouye International HNL | 19 | Sling Aircraft (Pty) Ltd SLING LSA |
| Purdue Aviation LLC website Purdue Aviation LLC is an FBO and flight school located at Purdue University Airport in West Lafayette, Indiana. | Flight school | West Lafayette, Indiana | no public airport in town | 19 | Cessna 172N |
| US Aviation Training Solutions INC website US Aviation Training Solutions is a flight school based in Titusville, Florida that offers FAA Part 141 certified training programs for private pilot, commercial pilot, instrument rating, and certified flight instructor licenses in both air | Flight school | Titusville, Florida | Space Coast Regional TIX | 19 | Schweizer 269C-1 |
| Central Washington University website | University or college with a flight programme | Ellensburg, Washington | Bowers Field ELN | 18 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Delaware State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Dover, Delaware | Dover Air Force Base DOV | 18 | Piper PA-28-161 |
| High Flight Academy LLC website High Flight Academy is an FAA Part 141 certified flight school at Pittsburgh-Butler Regional Airport near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. | Flight school | Allison Park, Pennsylvania | no public airport in town | 18 | Cessna 172M |
| Mil2Atp INC website Mil2ATP is a flight school based in Pikeville, North Carolina that offers pilot training from private pilot through airline transport pilot (ATP) certification. | Flight school | Pikeville, North Carolina | no public airport in town | 18 | Piper PA-34-200T |
| Snohomish Flying Service INC website Snohomish Flying Service is an FAA-approved flight training school and fixed base operator located at Harvey Field in Snohomish, Washington, about 20 miles north of Seattle. | Flight school | Snohomish, Washington | Harvey Field S43 | 18 | Cessna 152 |
| Southeastern Oklahoma State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Durant, Oklahoma | Durant Rgnl/Eaker Field DUA | 18 | Cessna 172R |
| University of Alaska Anchorage website University of Alaska Anchorage is a public university serving approximately 12,000 students across south-central Alaska through its main Anchorage campus and community campuses in Kenai Peninsula, Matanuska-Susitna, Kodiak, and Prince Willi | University or college with a flight programme | Anchorage, Alaska | Ted Stevens Anchorage International ANC | 18 | Cessna 172S |
| Veracity Aviation LLC website Veracity Aviation is a helicopter flight school based in Texas that provides pilot training from private pilot through airline transport pilot certificates, as well as helicopter charter services, aerial surveys, inspections, photography, a | Flight school | Seguin, Texas | Seguin Airport E70 | 18 | Robinson Helicopter R22 BETA |
| Wisconsin Aviation INC website Wisconsin Aviation is a full-service general aviation provider based in Watertown, Wisconsin, with additional locations in Madison and Juneau. | Flight school | Watertown, Wisconsin | Watertown Municipal RYV | 18 | Cessna 152 |
| Aims Community College website | University or college with a flight programme | Greeley, Colorado | Greeley-Weld County GXY | 17 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Henderson State University website | University or college with a flight programme | Arkadelphia, Arkansas | Dexter B Florence Memorial Field ADF | 17 | Maule MXT-7-180A |
| Richmor Aviation INC website Richmor Aviation is an FAA Part 141 certified flight school based in Hudson, New York. | Flight school | Hudson, New York | Columbia County 1B1 | 17 | Cessna 152 |
| Textron Aviation Employees Flying Club INC | Flying club | Wichita, Kansas | Wichita Dwight D Eisenhower Ntl Airport ICT | 17 | Textron Aviation Inc 172S |
| Vincennes University website Vincennes University is Indiana's first college, founded in 1801. | University or college with a flight programme | Vincennes, Indiana | no public airport in town | 17 | Cirrus Design Corp SR20 |
| Cp Aviation INC website CP Aviation is a flight school at Santa Paula Airport in California that has trained pilots since 1987. | Flight school | Santa Paula, California | Santa Paula Airport SZP | 16 | Bellanca 8KCAB |
| Elon Aviation LLC website Elon Aviation is a flight school offering pilot training from private pilot through airline transport pilot certificates and ratings at two locations in North Carolina: Burlington-Alamanca Regional Airport (KBUY) and Piedmont-Triad Internat | Flight school | Burlington, North Carolina | Burlington/Alamance Regional BUY | 16 | Piper PA-28-181 |
| Laurel Highlands Aeronautical Academy website Laurel Highlands Aeronautical Academy is a Part 61 and Part 141 flight school located at Arnold Palmer Regional Airport (KLBE) in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. | Flight school | Latrobe, Pennsylvania | Arnold Palmer Regional LBE | 16 | Cessna 152 |
| Moore Aviation INC website Moore Aviation is a FAA Part 141 and Part 61 certified flight school in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, serving western Pennsylvania. | Flight school | Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania | Beaver County BVI | 16 | Cessna 172R |
| Redstone Arsenal Flying Activity website Redstone Arsenal Flying Activity is a flying club located at Redstone Arsenal in Alabama that offers flight training to authorized patrons. | Flying club | Redstone Arsenal, Alabama | no public airport in town | 16 | Cessna 172N |
| Tampa Bay Soaring Society INC website Tampa Bay Soaring Society is a flying club based at Zephyrhills Municipal Airport in Florida that operates gliders and offers guest rides, instruction, and membership to soaring pilots. | Flying club | Zephyrhills, Florida | Zephyrhills Municipal ZPH | 16 | Burkhart Grob Flugzeugbau G103 TWIN ASTIR |
| Aerowood Aviation LLC website Aerowood Aviation is a flight school and aircraft rental operator based in the Charlotte, North Carolina area with locations in Monroe and Concord. | Flight school | Monroe, North Carolina | Charlotte/Monroe Executive EQY | 15 | Cessna 172H |
Source: the FAA Civil Aviation Registry, November 6, 2026: company owners whose names say flight school, academy, flight training, flying club, or a university or college with three or more aircraft; and schools whose names don't say so, checked by hand or found by their fleets of training aircraft and confirmed by their own websites. The airport is the main public landing place in the town the company registers its aircraft from, which is usually, not always, where it works. A name links to the company's aircraft. Is your company here, or missing? Claim, correct or add a listing: the base, the website, what you do, and your own pictures; "confirmed" marks a listing the company itself has checked.
